"union" Data Type What is the output of the following program? Why?
#include
main() {
typedef union {
int a;
char b[10];
float c;
}
Union;
Union x,y = {100};
x.a = 50;
strcpy(x.b,"hello");
x.c = 21.50;
printf("Union x : %d %s %f n",x.a,x.b,x.c);
printf("Union y : %d %s %f n",y.a,y.b,y.c);
}
What does static variable mean?
there are 3 main uses for the static.
1. If you declare within a function: It retains the value between function calls
2.If it is declared for a function name: By default function is extern..so it will be visible from other files if the
function declaration is as static..it is invisible for the outer files
3. Static for global variables: By default we can use the global variables from outside files If it is static global..that variable is limited to with in the file
Advantages of a macro over a function?
Macro gets to see the Compilation environment, so it can expand __ __TIME__ __FILE__ #defines. It is expanded by the preprocessor.
For example, you can’t do this without macros
#define PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT( 5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You can define your mini language with macros:
#define strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))
Macros are a necessary evils of life. The purists don’t like them, but without it no real work gets done.
For example, you can’t do this without macros
#define PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT( 5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You can define your mini language with macros:
#define strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))
Macros are a necessary evils of life. The purists don’t like them, but
without it no real work gets done.
What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?
There are 2 differences. First, is in the number of arguments. malloc() takes a single argument(memory required in bytes), while calloc() needs 2 arguments(number of variables to allocate memory, size in bytes of a
single variable). Secondly, malloc() does not initialize the memory allocated, while calloc() initializes the allocated memory to ZERO.
What are the different storage classes in C?
C has three types of storage: automatic, static and allocated. Variable having block scope and without static specifier have automatic storage duration. Variables with block scope, and with static specifier have static scope. Global variables (i.e, file scope) with or without the static specifier also have static scope. Memory obtained from calls to malloc(), alloc() or realloc() belongs to allocated storage class.
What is the difference between strings and character arrays?
A major difference is: string will have static storage duration, whereas as a character array will not, unless it is explicity specified by using the static keyword.
Actually, a string is a character array with following properties:
* the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally call string, is used to initialize an array of static storage duration. The size of this array is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the terminating
NUL character.
* it not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string, is modified.
* Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area. For example, in the following declarations:
char *s1 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char *s2 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
the strings pointed by s1 and s2 may reside in the same memory location. But, it is not true for the following:
char ca1[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char ca2[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
[1] The value of a string is the sequence of the values of the contained characters, in order.
Difference between const char* p and char const* p
In const char* p, the character pointed by ‘p’ is constant, so u cant change the value of character pointed by p but u can make ‘p’ refer to some other location. in char const* p, the ptr ‘p’ is constant not the character referenced by it, so u cant make ‘p’ to reference to any other location but u can change the value of the char pointed by ‘p’.
What is hashing?
To hash means to grind up, and that’s essentially what hashing is all about. The heart of a hashing algorithm is a hash function that takes your nice, neat data and grinds it into some random-looking integer. The idea behind hashing is that some data either has no inherent ordering (such as images) or is expensive to compare (such as images). If the data has no inherent ordering, you can’t perform comparison searches.
If the data is expensive to compare, the number of comparisons used even by a binary search might be too many. So instead of looking at the data themselves, you’ll condense (hash) the data to an integer (its hash value) and keep all the data with the same hash value in the same place. This task is carried out by using the hash value as an index into an array.
To search for an item, you simply hash it and look at all the data whose hash values match that of the data you’re looking for. This technique greatly lessens the number of items you have to look at. If the parameters are set up with care and enough storage is available for the hash table, the number of comparisons needed to find an item can be made arbitrarily close to one.
One aspect that affects the efficiency of a hashing implementation is the hash function itself. It should ideally distribute data randomly throughout the entire hash table, to reduce the likelihood of collisions. Collisions occur when two different keys have the same hash value. There are two ways to resolve this problem. In open addressing, the collision is resolved by the choosing of another position in the hash table for the element inserted later. When the hash table is searched, if the entry is not found at its hashed position in the table, the search continues checking until either the element is found or an empty position in the table is found. The second method of resolving a hash collision is called chaining. In this method, a bucket or linked list holds all the elements whose keys hash to the same value. When the hash table is searched, the list must
be searched linearly.
#include
main() {
typedef union {
int a;
char b[10];
float c;
}
Union;
Union x,y = {100};
x.a = 50;
strcpy(x.b,"hello");
x.c = 21.50;
printf("Union x : %d %s %f n",x.a,x.b,x.c);
printf("Union y : %d %s %f n",y.a,y.b,y.c);
}
What does static variable mean?
there are 3 main uses for the static.
1. If you declare within a function: It retains the value between function calls
2.If it is declared for a function name: By default function is extern..so it will be visible from other files if the
function declaration is as static..it is invisible for the outer files
3. Static for global variables: By default we can use the global variables from outside files If it is static global..that variable is limited to with in the file
Advantages of a macro over a function?
Macro gets to see the Compilation environment, so it can expand __ __TIME__ __FILE__ #defines. It is expanded by the preprocessor.
For example, you can’t do this without macros
#define PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT( 5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You can define your mini language with macros:
#define strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))
Macros are a necessary evils of life. The purists don’t like them, but without it no real work gets done.
For example, you can’t do this without macros
#define PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT( 5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You can define your mini language with macros:
#define strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))
Macros are a necessary evils of life. The purists don’t like them, but
without it no real work gets done.
What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?
There are 2 differences. First, is in the number of arguments. malloc() takes a single argument(memory required in bytes), while calloc() needs 2 arguments(number of variables to allocate memory, size in bytes of a
single variable). Secondly, malloc() does not initialize the memory allocated, while calloc() initializes the allocated memory to ZERO.
What are the different storage classes in C?
C has three types of storage: automatic, static and allocated. Variable having block scope and without static specifier have automatic storage duration. Variables with block scope, and with static specifier have static scope. Global variables (i.e, file scope) with or without the static specifier also have static scope. Memory obtained from calls to malloc(), alloc() or realloc() belongs to allocated storage class.
What is the difference between strings and character arrays?
A major difference is: string will have static storage duration, whereas as a character array will not, unless it is explicity specified by using the static keyword.
Actually, a string is a character array with following properties:
* the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally call string, is used to initialize an array of static storage duration. The size of this array is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the terminating
NUL character.
* it not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string, is modified.
* Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area. For example, in the following declarations:
char *s1 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char *s2 = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
the strings pointed by s1 and s2 may reside in the same memory location. But, it is not true for the following:
char ca1[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
char ca2[] = “Calvin and Hobbes”;
[1] The value of a string is the sequence of the values of the contained characters, in order.
Difference between const char* p and char const* p
In const char* p, the character pointed by ‘p’ is constant, so u cant change the value of character pointed by p but u can make ‘p’ refer to some other location. in char const* p, the ptr ‘p’ is constant not the character referenced by it, so u cant make ‘p’ to reference to any other location but u can change the value of the char pointed by ‘p’.
What is hashing?
To hash means to grind up, and that’s essentially what hashing is all about. The heart of a hashing algorithm is a hash function that takes your nice, neat data and grinds it into some random-looking integer. The idea behind hashing is that some data either has no inherent ordering (such as images) or is expensive to compare (such as images). If the data has no inherent ordering, you can’t perform comparison searches.
If the data is expensive to compare, the number of comparisons used even by a binary search might be too many. So instead of looking at the data themselves, you’ll condense (hash) the data to an integer (its hash value) and keep all the data with the same hash value in the same place. This task is carried out by using the hash value as an index into an array.
To search for an item, you simply hash it and look at all the data whose hash values match that of the data you’re looking for. This technique greatly lessens the number of items you have to look at. If the parameters are set up with care and enough storage is available for the hash table, the number of comparisons needed to find an item can be made arbitrarily close to one.
One aspect that affects the efficiency of a hashing implementation is the hash function itself. It should ideally distribute data randomly throughout the entire hash table, to reduce the likelihood of collisions. Collisions occur when two different keys have the same hash value. There are two ways to resolve this problem. In open addressing, the collision is resolved by the choosing of another position in the hash table for the element inserted later. When the hash table is searched, if the entry is not found at its hashed position in the table, the search continues checking until either the element is found or an empty position in the table is found. The second method of resolving a hash collision is called chaining. In this method, a bucket or linked list holds all the elements whose keys hash to the same value. When the hash table is searched, the list must
be searched linearly.
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